Non-Western Interests in the Treaty of Versailles Japan:
Japan wanted territory in China, specifically the Shandong Province in the Northeastern Region of China. China did not want this to happen, but as a result of Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles Japan acquired the province much to China’s chagrin. At the same time, Germany orchestrated that Japan received its Pacific Colonies. Japan, however, wanted more territory inside China, and due to Germany’s perceived kindness would go on to side with the Axis Powers during World War II. China:
China wanted Japan to stay in Japan and cease trying to colonize into China, and Japanese occupied territory in China to return to Chinese ownership. Due to Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles, Japan retained possession of the Shandong Province of China. This displeased China greatly (the displeasure led to the rise of a certain Mao Tse Tung), and they disputed the issue with Germany for the next 3 years. It wasn’t until the Washington Naval Conference of 1922 when the dispute was resolved and the Shandong Province was returned to Chinese Governance. Arabs in the Ottoman Empire:
Much like China, Arab Nationalists wanted their land returned to them. However, unlike China, they had their lands returned to the as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. During 1916 an agreement was made called the Sykes-Picot Agreement, in which the British would be in control of Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq, while France would be in control of Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. Once the war was over and the agreement was realized, the British and French promised the Arabs their [[#|Heritage]] lands, and it was written down in the Treaty of Versailles. However, the Arab Nationals didn’t see a square metre of their land, and were forced to revolt in 1922 to finally get it. Colonies:
Australia had lost a great deal of men as a result of the Great War, and was looking to be compensated. Many other British Colonies were looking for compensation for helping in the war effort, and it came in the form of [[#|German]] colonies. After the war was won, Germany was forced to sequester all of its colonial lands to the British and French, thus making Africa a solely Anglo-French controlled continent. The revenue gained from these countries and the subsequent accumulations of [[#|bonus]] resources and materials led to a surplus, which was then shipped to Australia and New Zealand. For Germany’s Pacific colonies in Indonesia and the Pacific [[#|Islands]], those went to Japan, which was a tactical decision by the Germans to satiate the Japanese thirst for Imperialism. The Allied Powers did not pay much attention to this shrewd move, for they dismissed Japan as a nation on the other side of the planet, with little to no influence on European proceedings. The 14 Points as it pertains to Non-Western Interests:
As most of the Versailles Treaty was broken due to withholding of land and deferral of sequestration, Wilson’s 14 Points were seen as the last thing with which Non-Western interests could still flourish. The 14 points gave much of the Non-Western World hope for what was to come, however it did not progress past that. The hope they had was never realized due to the failings of the Treaty of Versailles. While some good things did come of the treaty, such as the reimbursement of Australia and New Zealand, many more things did not happen, and as such had to be rectified later in subsequent Treaties. The Treaty of Versailles had the option and ability to be a great Treaty, but due to the bureaucratic nature of the proceedings in getting it signed and ratified it never truly hit the ground running. It was best described by French Marshall Ferdinand Foch in 1919 as “not peace, but an Armistice for 20 years.”
Citations: The Myths of Reparations Sally Marks Central European History , Vol. 11, No. 3 (Sep., 1978), pp. 231-255 A Shattered Peace: Versailles 1919 and the Price We Pay Today by David A. Andelman Review by: Robert Gerwarth International Journal , Vol. 63, No. 4, Nuclear Strategy in the Age of Weapons of Mass Destruction (Autumn, 2008), pp. 1061-1064 Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. New York: Norton, 1990. Print.
Versailles and the Soviet Union- Derek
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
What were the stipulations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918 between Germany and Lenin’s Bolshevik government? To what extent was this treaty observed or honored at Versailles? Why or why not?
With Russia's involvement in World War I along with her allies, France and Britain, the death toll was significant against Germany. Only a few consistent victories against Austria-Hungary was all Russia could manage. Defeat on the battle field did not please the large Russian population, especially the poverty-stricken workers and peasants. The discontent was even stronger with the cause of the Bolsheviks, a radical socialist group that was headed by Vladimir Lenin that furiously sought to find opposition to the czar. Lenin's hope was to begin a sweeping revolution in Russia that would later spread to the rest of the world.
The February Revolution began in early March 1917. Lenin returned home from exile and he and his fellow Bolsheviks took control of the provisional government led by. One of Lenin's first action was to halt Russia's participation in the war. An armistice was reached in December of 1917 and cease fire declared on December 15. Terms for a treaty were negotiated on December 22 with Foreign Ministers Leon Trotsky of Russia, Baron Richard von Kuhlmann of Germany, and Count Ottokar Czernin of Austria. In mid- February negotiations failed as Trotsky decided that the Central Power's stipulations were too harsh and their demands for territory outrageous. Fighting resumed once again on the Eastern Front and Russia realized it was at no position to make demands with its weakened country. Negotiations resumed once again later that month and the treaty was officially signed on March 3.
The stipulations are as follows.
Russia recognized the independence of Ukraine, Georgia, and Finland
Gave up Poland and the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to Germany and Austria-Hungary
Ceded Kars, Ardahan and Batum to Turkey
The total amount of land lost was about 1 million square miles of Russia's territory. In addition to the land, a third of the population, a majority of its coal, oil, and iron stores, and much of its industry was lost. Lenin hoed that a world revolution would right everything done at Brest-Ltovsk. With the November 11, 1918, armistice ending World War I and marking the Allies' victory over Germany, the treaty was annulled. By the terms of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Germany was forced to give up its territorial gains from the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Some of this land was made into new states: Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. An enlarged Poland also received some of this land.
Why was the Soviet Union not represented at the Paris Peace Conference? To what extent was the Soviet Union, in its absence, considered in the negotiations? To what extent did this affect the treaty?
Treaty negotiations for the Treaty of Versailles were weakened by the absence of Russia. The large country was part of the Allies until December 1917. After the Bolshevik government withdrew from the war, the Allied Powers did not recognize the new Bolshevik Government. They were also furious by the Bolshevik decision to repudiate Russia's outstanding financial debts to the Allies and to showcase documents of secret agreements between the Allies concerning the postwar period.
The formal reason of Russia's exclusion from the Paris Peace Conference was because they had negotiated a separate peace with Germany beforehand. Although physically absent from the Peace Conference, Russia's presence made itself felt in all of the deliberations.
Vladimir Lenin and his fellow Bolsheviks followed ideals that would lead to a perspective world revolution that would move westward, across Central Europe, France, and the entirety of Europe. This appears to be a very utopian idea but the Allied Powers at the Peace Conference took it very seriously in their discussions and negotiations.
The real reason for the exclusion of Russia was that all of the imperialist powers present at the Conference refused Bolshevism and its ideals. While negotiations were in process, the power of the revolution was spreading toward Germany. In fact, soviet republics had been declared in Hungary and Bavaria. Trotsky's Red Army was beating back counterrevolutionary White forces. The British, American, Japanese, and French forces were intervening actively on the side of the Whites in an anti-Bolshevik attitude.
This explains why the German ruling class was quick in capitulating to the Allies. The Germans, especially the Social Democratic leaders, had high hope on the American President, Woodrow Wilson, and his Fourteen Points. In 1919, Lenin was hoping that a Soviet revolution in Vienna would support Soviet Hungary. He also hoped a revolution would occur in Germany. This was because Germany was central in Europe and help facilitate the spread of communism. Also, Germany had a government that would easily transfer to communism with its current weak state.
“The Soviet revolution in Germany will strengthen the international Soviet movement, which is the strongest bulwark (and the only reliable, invincible and world-wide bulwark) against the Treaty of Versailles and against international imperialism in general.”
During the conference the “Big Three” was determined to stop the Russian influence of communism from spreading to the west. The "Big Three" were: David Lloyd George of Britain, Clemenceau of France, and Woodrow Wilson of America. George of Great Britain believed that the spread of communism posed a far greater threat to the world than a defeated Germany. He felt that Germany should be treated in such a manner that left her as a barrier to resist the expected spread of communism. He did not want the people of Germany to become so disillusioned with their government that they turned to communism. George did not want Germany treated with lenience but he knew that Germany would be the only country in central Europe that could stop the spread of communism if it burst over the frontiers of Russia. Germany had to be punished but not to the extent that it left her destitute.
The Treaty of Versailles had several parts that kept Germany strong enough to stop the spread of communism but at the same time very weak. The military of Germany was reduced drastically but not to the point of defenseless. The economy of Germany was in ruins, and the Allies wanted to keep economic potential at a minimum to keep it becoming too strong. The Allies forbid Germany to unite with Austria and all the reparations that were required made the country heavy with debt. Germany also had to admit full responsibility for starting the war.
To what extent did the Soviet issue in the Paris peace negotiations have an effect on the USSR’s relations with the rest of Europe and the United States in the inter-war period to follow (1919-39)?
Europe and the United States had a negative relationship with the USSR during the inter-war period of 1919-1939. The US and Europe saw that the Soviet Union was literally trying to take over the world (as mentioned before), and that someone had to push back the Soviet-style government - which had already killed more than 10 million of its own people before WWII even started - would be imposed on billions of innocent people. The United States extended its embargo of Germany to include Russia, and orchestrated a series of covert actions against Soviet Russia, including secretly funding its enemies. The USSR was not invited to join the League of Nations as well. This was due to their “World Revolution” ideals, negotiating a treaty prematurely, and the civil war within the country itself. The Allied Powers never did directly interfere with the Soviets when they invaded Poland in 1921. In the year of 1923, The Red Army, or the communists, completely secured power. More than 15,000,000 died, and industry had virtually come to a grinding halt. Starvation and disease were rampant, and the country was essentially in ruins. The new Soviet government implemented communist policies through military force. Stalin consolidated power, in 1928, after Trotsky. Russia and its Soviet land, like Ukraine and Belarus, suffered heavily under the hand of communism. Many starved, resistance was unacceptable, and mass murders were common. The Allied Powers looked on this with disgust and desired the spread of communistic power to not spread.
Work Cited:
"D.1. The Treaty of Versailles." Colby College | Four-Year Liberal Arts College in Maine. Colby, n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2013. <http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmschec
Girard, Romain . "A critical assessment of the international relations of the USSR during the interwar period." Introduction to International Relations 1.1 (2012): 1-7. Print.
Sharp, Allan. "The 'Big Four'-Peacemaking in Paris in 1919: Alan Sharp Takes a Flesh Look at the Statesmen Responsible for the Treaty of Versailles."History Review 1.65 (2009): 14. Questia. Web. 7 Oct. 2013.
Simon, Jeffery. " Central Europe: "Return to Europe" or Descent to Chaos?.." McNair Papers 1.20-22 (1993): n/a. Questia. Web. 7 Oct. 2013.
Von, Theodore. "A Perspective on History: The Soviet System Reconsidered…" The Historian 61.2 (1999): 383. Questia. Web. 7 Oct. 2013.
The Armistice:
How was the armistice finally arrived at, and what were its conditions for all belligerents? The armistice went into effect on the “the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month”, or 11:00AM on November 11, 1918. When the German Supreme Army Command convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Imperial Chansellor Count Georg von Hertling that Germany’s military situation in the war was hopeless, they appointed royal liberal, Prince Maximillian of Baden, to negotiate the terms of an armistice with U.S. President Woodrow Wilson--the Germans wanted to conclude peace based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Wilson was willing to commence talks in secret with Germany, despite the fact that his allies (mainly Britain and France) were opposed to any negotiations with Germany that would lessen their punishment. However, Wilson had several preconditions including: the abdication of the Kaiser, retreat of Germany from Ally-occupied territories, and the abandonment of all submarine activities.The Germans declared this unacceptable, but the decline in military morale in Germany’s Western front and the increasing instances of civilian revolt (sailor’s revolt) made staying in the war impossible.
To what extent was the armistice adhered to or violated by the belligerent states in the period between Nov. 1918 and June 1919?
Because the armistice was violated, Annex 1 and Annex 2 were added to the Armistice.
- Germany stated that they were incapable of complying with the demands stated in the armistice because they did not have the physical means and that the interior of Germany was distraught and needed time to recover.
- The most important violations were: mistreatment of Allied POWs, failure to provide war materials (such as naval vessels and air crafts) and the fact that they left mines in territories that they were supposed to leave.
To what extent did the armistice serve to dictate the peace process at Versailles? To what extent can it be argued as a reason for the failure of the treaty to bring a meaningful peace?
The Treaty of Versailles was developed at the Paris Peace Conference and it was signed on June 28, 1919. The armistice had ended the actual fighting between Germany and Allied forces, but a peace treaty was not drawn up until six months later. The armistice was used as a general model to “determine the spirit” of the Conference, although Wilson’s 14 points were ambiguous: “they were war aims as much as they were peace terms”. And the inclusion of a “War Guilt Clause” suggests that the purpose of the Conference was not to find a meaningful peace for the world, but to determine how to make Germany suffer the most in the form of war reparations. Negotiating the Peace treaties on the basis of the armistice brought about a new diplomacy dictated by “acceptance in principle but negation in detail”.
Works Cited:
1. "Avalon Project - President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points." Avalon Project - President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2013.
2. Conditions of an Armistice with Germany
The American Journal of International Law , Vol. 13, No. 2, Supplement: Official Documents (Apr., 1919), pp. 97-108
Published by: American Society of International Law
Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2212759
3. "Sgt. Hugh Cairns V.C., D.C.M." Sgt. Hugh Cairns V.C., D.C.M. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2013.
4.The War, the Armistice and the Peace Conference
Register of Kentucky State Historical Society , Vol. 17, No. 49 (JANUARY, 1919), pp. 63, 65-69
Published by: Kentucky Historical Society
Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23368602
A Peace Built on Quicksand
From 1919-25, what events in the major world powers gave clear indications that the Versailles Treaty was not going to result in a lasting peace? Why? Germany
The Ruhr Crisis, Kapp Putsch, Ruhr Uprising, and Munich Putsch, all of which are covered below, were warning signs that showed the instability of the peace created by the Versailles Treaty. Germans were continuously showing their deep anger toward the terms of the treaty, which they thought to be far too harsh. Nationalist, right-wing factions, such as the Nazis, were gaining more power in the time after WWI because they appealed to this anger to win the German people to their side. These nationalist parties absolutely rejected the idea that Germany should accept responsibility for WWI. They gave the German people hope and a sense of nationalist pride during a time when those things were extremely hard to come by. The rise to power of a nationalist party that rejected the treaty would inevitably lead to conflict between Germany and the rest of Europe (which, of course, happened with the Nazis in WWII).
Feeding in to the growing unrest in Germany was the incredible hyperinflation that occurred during the early 1920s. During this time period the German mark was essentially worthless due to skyrocketing inflation rates, with people using paper marks as tinder, building blocks, and wallpaper. This dealt a massive blow to the German economy that severely impeded their ability to pay reparations, showing that it may well be impossible for Germany to fulfill the terms of the treaty. Furthermore, the abysmal living conditions that resulted from Germany’s ruined economy mean that the people were almost guaranteed to vehemently reject the harsh terms of the treaty sooner or later, seeing it as inhumane.
Another thing that signaled the failure of the treaty was Germany’s repeated refusal to abide by its terms, which is discussed again below. For example, concerning Germany’s military, the German navy was to be limited to 15,000 officers and men and six battleships while the army was to be restricted to 100,000 men who would be obliged to enlist for twelve years. The military section of the treaty suggests that Germany was to be disarmed “in order to render possible the initiation of a general limitation of the armaments of all nations.” However, one of the crucial flaws in this section was that it did not have any time limits, a fact that Germany shamelessly exploited. Germany of course could not be expected to remain disarmed forever, but the treaty did not specify how long the disarmament should last. This therefore allowed Germany to continually abuse and disobey that section through the loophole. It was clear that Germany would do everything in its power to keep from complying with the treaty. A lasting, successful peace seems quite impossible in retrospect.
League of Nations
The failure of the League of Nations as an organization was an important factor in the failure of the Versailles Treaty as well. As a predecessor to the UN, the League of Nations was meant to be a type of global police that mediated conflicts, addressed global issues, and prevented war. This included monitoring how the Versailles Treaty was carried out and making sure post-war rebuilding efforts ran smoothly. However, it proved too weak to do this and was unable to keep peace.
The United States did not join the League of Nations despite the fact that Woodrow Wilson was the one who first proposed the concept. Thus from the outset the credibility of the League was undermined because it did not have the military power to enforce any of its potential verdicts. The League did not have troops of its own.
The League was not able to take any action when Japan invaded Manchuria, part of China’s territory. It took a year for the League to even make a decision and announce it to the world. Japan simply ignored the League’s demands, and due to the League’s lack of troops, it was unable to stop Japan.
The League was also unable to do anything when Italy invaded Ethiopia. The Ethiopian Emperor implored the League to take action to help him, but they sat by the sidelines.
These events undermining the authority of the League are important to consider because a major reason behind the League’s founding was to make sure the Versailles Treaty was respected. Although the League did accomplish sometimes, it ultimately failed in many of its goals and was not respected. Its lack of authority meant that it was unable to force Germany to obey the treaty and unable to properly deal with conflicts within Europe concerning the treaty that led up to WWI.
What were the causes and effects of the Ruhr Crisis of 1923? How can it be viewed as both a bolster and an undermining of the Versailles Treaty?
Causes: After WWI ended, Germany was forced in the Treaty of Versailles to take responsibility for starting the war and agree to pay reparations to various Allied countries, especially France. Germany was also forced to surrender its overseas colonies and the Alsace-Lorraine (now a part of France). The total amount of money demanded from Germany amounted more than $800 billion in modern terms. In 1921, this amount was reduced to $442 billion in modern terms, but it was still a huge burden for Germany. The German economy suffered significantly, especially because some of the payments demanded were raw industrial materials. The Treaty of Versailles stripped Germany of slightly over 13% of its territory and reduced Germany’s economic productivity 13%.
By 1922 Germany was struggling to meet all responsibilities and had defaulted on several payments, which was also partially due to Germany’s rejection of the reparations. Most Germans viewed the demands imposed by the treaty to be grossly unjust. The Reparations Commission was divided on what action should be taken—France and Belgium advocated the occupation of Ruhr, which had previously been occupied by Allied forces after WWI, as a way to force Germany to pay more, while Britain supported lowering the payments. In December of 1922 Germany failed to make a timber payment, which caused the Reparations Commissions to invade Ruhr. Some of the Allies believed that Germany had defaulted on its payment to text the Allies’ willingness to enforce the treaty. In addition to the timber, Germany also failed to make a coal payment in early January of 1923. Led by the French prime minister, the invasion of Ruhr took place on January 11, 1923 in order to force Germany to make its payments.
Effects: The invasion sparked a campaign of passive resistance by Germans, with a number of protests and strikes occurring across the nation. Civil unrest, rather than calming down, eventually grew into riots. The occupation of Ruhr increased sympathy for Germany around the world, but no action was taken because France’s actions were legal under the Versailles Treaty. The occupation eventually did succeed in making Germany pay. However, because Germany had gained the world’s sympathy, France came under pressure from the US and Britain to reduce Germany’s reparations. France agreed to the Dawes Plan of April 1924, under which Germany paid significantly less. On August 25 of 1925, the occupation of Ruhr was ended.
This event could be viewed as a bolster to the Versailles Treaty because France demonstrated to Germany and the world that it was willing to use force to make sure Germany adhered to the terms that had been agreed upon. Additionally, France achieved its goal of making the occupation of Ruhr pay, which lent more credibility to those who backed the Versailles Treaty. However, it could be seen as undermining the treaty because France lost money in the long run when it was pressured by the international community into reducing Germany’s reparations. The fact that the Dawes Plan passed showed that the terms of the Versailles Treaty were not quite set in stone.
What were the causes and effects of the Kapp Putsch, the Ruhr Uprising, and the Munich Putsch in 1923? How can they all be viewed in the context of a growing German rejection of the Versailles Treaty?
The Kapp Putsch was a coup attempt in 1920 that aimed to overthrow the Weimar Republic and turn Germany into a right-wing monarchy, undoing the results of the Germany Revolution from 1918-1919. It was driven by support from the army and other nationalistic and conservative forces.
Causes: After Germany lost WWI, the German Revolution took place from 1918 to 1919 and abolished to German Empire, establishing a republic in its place. The military and right-wing forces in the nation opposed this change. Problems within in the government arose due to Treaty of Versailles, which demanded that Germany reduce its military forces. It stated that Germany’s land forces could have no more than 100,000 men. This meant that the Freikorps (free corps) would have to be disbanded. On February 29 of 1920, when the German Defense Minister ordered the disbandment of two of the most powerful Freikorp troops, the commander stated that they refused to disband. The highest ranking general in the military at the time, Luttwitz, sympathized with the Freikorps and stated that he would not stand for the dissolution of such important units. The military, after a number of failed attempts at mediation, led a coup against the government. The military forced took Berlin.
Effects: The coup seemed like a success at first, with the current German government being forced to flee from Berlin to Dresden, and then from Dresden to Stuttgart. However, on March 13, the cabinet called on the German people to go on strike to oppose the rebels. It was a huge success, gaining considerable support from the working class. It was in fact the most widespread and powerful strike in Germany, with roughly 12 million people involved. The country was unable to function, which left the provisional government unable to function. The coup was ultimately a failure. In some areas across the country, the strike turned into armed revolts, with workers fighting against German military forces.Wolfgang Kapp, a civil servant who had been planning a coup for some time and played a supporting role in the Kapp Putsch as well as declaring himself Chancellor of the provisional government, fled to Sweden in April, and Luttwitz fled to Saxony and then Hungary. Kapp was arrested in Sweden on April 16th but not deported to Germany. He voluntarily returned to Germany in April of 1922 and died the same year in prison while awaiting trial. Luttwitz returned to Germany as part of an amnesty in 1924.
This can be seen as a sign of growing German discontent with the Versailles Treaty because it was caused by the German military refusing to comply with the treaty’s terms. The Freikorps were meant to be disbanded in order to meet Germany’s imposed cap of 100,000 land soldiers, but the Freikorp troops outright rejected these terms, clearly showing their discontent with the treaty.
The Ruhr Uprising was a left-wing worker’s revolt in March of 1920 in the Ruhr Region of Germany.
Causes: The Ruhr Uprising was in fact caused by the aforementioned Kapp Putsch. It initially took place due to the Weimar Republic government calling on German citizens to strike in order to cripple the provisional government. The left-wing workers’ parties in Ruhr had already formed an anti-putsch alliance in previous demonstrations against the putsch. They wanted to gain political power. During the strike, a number of the workers’ organizations tried to use the opportunity to seize power of the state level. The strike in the Ruhr region turned into an armed revolt, and the Red Ruhr Army, which numbered roughly 50,000, defeated the military forces in the area fairly quickly.
Effects: After the Kapp Putsch was toppled and the previous government reinstalled, the workers’ groups in the Ruhr region refused to end their uprising despite the government’s demand to do so. The government eventually sent in the Freikorps and the general German army to crush the revolt, which resulted in a rather bloody conflict that cost somewhere in the area of 2,000 lives. There were also mass executions for those who participated in the uprising.
This can be seen as a rejection of the Versailles Treaty in that the workers’ groups were expressing deep discontent with the current situation in Germany and the vast disparity between the upper and lower classes, which could be partially blamed on the treaty because it crippled the German economy with its harsh conditions. This uprising was the largest armed German workers’ revolt in history and was supported by about 300,000 miners while the middle and upper classes feared it, showing that a major cause of the uprising was the divide between the rich and poor.
The Munich Putsch (Beer Hall Putsch) was Hitler’s attempt to overthrow the the Weimar Republic government and establish a right-wing nationalistic one in its place. Causes: This event was directly related to the occupation of Ruhr. In September of 1923, while the French were in Ruhr, the German Chancellor stated that after hyperinflation the only way Germany would be able to move forward was to work with France, not try to go against them. This meant that the passive resistance in the Ruhr Valley had to be called off and Germany had to agree to pay the reparations it owed under the Versailles Treaty. To nationalist factions, this amounted to a confession of guilt for starting WWI, which they could not abide by. On November 8th and 9th in 1923, Hitler, leading the Nazi party which then numbered roughly 35,000, tried to used the anger felt against the Berlin government to orchestrate an overthrow of the regional government in Munich and then move on to usurp the national government. Hitler placed all his hopes on people in Munich following him due to having been angered by the central government’s response to the Ruhr crisis, but he never gained the support he needed and the coup failed.
Effects: Hitler was arrested two days later and charged with high treason. He was released on December 20 of 1924 for good behavior after having only served nine months. One of the most prominent effects of the Munich Putsch was the further development of Nazi propaganda in Germany. Hilter’s role in the coup and his subsequent arrest gave him a sort of publicity throughout the nation. He used his trial as an opportunity to spread his ideas, with every word he spoke being reported in the newspaper the next day. Furthermore, this changed Hitler’s mindset toward violent revolution. He decided that any action he took from then on ought to be strictly legal—he would take power by working within the system and using it to his advantage. Sixteen Nazis died during the attempted coup, and they came to be viewed as martyrs within the Nazi party and even had a memorial built for them.
This coup was a clear expression of discontent with the Versailles Treaty. The Treaty attempted to force Germany to take responsibility for WWI, which nationalist groups such as the Nazis saw as a severe insult and flat-out rejected. The fact that the Weimar government seemed to be ceding to France’s pressure and accepting this blame was unacceptable to such groups and therefore prompted Hitler—and the Nazi party—to take bold action. Additionally, the judge at Hitler’s trial was quite sympathetic toward him and his ideology, showing the many Germans disliked the current government’s submissiveness toward the Versailles Treaty.
Timothy, Guinnane W. "Financial Vergangenheitsbewältigung: The 1953 London Debt Agreement." (n.d.): n. pag. Rpt. inCenter Discussion Paper. Vol. 880. New Haven: Yale University, 2004. 1-47. Economic Growth Center. Web. 4 Oct. 2013. <http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp880.pdf>.
The Big Four
-Goals in the treaty of Versailles
France- To the French, preventing another invasion from Germany was top priority in the Paris Peace Conference. The French wanted extremely large reparation costs for Germany, like repairing damaged cities and paying war debts, as a way to cripple the economy enough so that Germany will not become a powerful country again. However these costs would only be short term, so France actually wanted to seize western industrial lands from Germany, and even disband the Reich all together. France supported the creation of a semiautonomous state between them and Germany that favored the French politically. This would effectively eliminate Germany as a threat to France. In addition to this France also wanted to make strong allies with other countries to the south and east of Germany, like Austria and the Polish lands as a way to have a second front against Germany, replacing Russia which could no longer stand as a military ally for France if there were another attack by Germany. France’s last major request was the acquisition of German territories in the middle east to support the French economy.
US- For Woodrow Wilson the most important goal was the creation of the League of Nations, which would serve as a mediator between nations and make war unnecessary for disputes between nations. Wilson also wanted to support his speech, the fourteen points, and help “self determination”. Because of this the US had no problem with Germany becoming a strong economic power, which collides with what France wants. Although the US did want Germany’s military to be permanently out of commision, they felt that if Germany became too weak, France would have domination over much of Europe. Wilson also strongly felt that Germany should stay a country and should not be disbanded, however the return of conquered lands, especially Belgium, were extremely important for the US.
UK- The primary objective for the British was to demilitarize Germany, and seize their battle fleet and merchant navy. Much of Britain’s though about Germany’s future was similar with the United States’. The UK wanted to keep Germany united, and only have it demilitarized yet still keeping a strong economy for trading purposes. The UK was also cautious about France becoming too powerful in Europe. Another goal for the UK was Germany’s colonies in both Africa and the Middle East (mostly from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire). Many ambitions for these colonies sparked conflict with France, who also shared interest in taking these colonies.
Italy- By far the largest goal for Italy was the lands that it was promised. Italy had its eyes on extending its borders along the mediterranean sea and also more into the eastern interior of Europe. These lands were promised to Italy by France and the UK as a way to get Italy to join their side in the conflict. Italy also shared interests in the demilitarization of Germany.
Many of these objectives were met in the Treaty of Versailles. First off Germany lost much of its land because of the Treaty. Belgium was returned, and some territories near France were given to France for a 15 year period. The future of these lands after the 15 years would be decided after another meeting between nations. Germany also lost many lands to the East such as the Polish lands. This pleased the big four however many Germans were outraged especially at the loss of the eastern lands. Another thing that all four countries agreed on was the demilitarization of Germany. After the treaty, Germany had to completely disarm except for an army of only 100,000 men which was allowed to stay. Britain also seized German naval ships and merchant ships. Financially Germany was put in an unreasonable position to pay almost all war debts and reparation costs, which was greatly supported by France. Germany was forced to pay a blank check that would stay for decades. The treaty also criminalized German leaders and put the blame of the war on them, which also outraged many German citizens. In time the League of Nations was formed, however it had very little actually power in its mediations. The treaty of Versailles was carried out in the self interest of the big four, and did not actually strive for fair peace between nations. One way this can be seen is through the eyes of Germany. Germany was almost completely blamed for this war and was given unreasonable consequences. It would be extremely hard for Germany to pay the debts, especially after many financial assets were given to both France and the UK. Germany also felt betrayed by Wilson’s 14 points after the loss of its eastern lands, especially because many of the Germans did not like their new rulers(Czechs). The criminalization of Germany’s leaders also seemed to be overkill as a way to embarrass Germany even more. Because of this many of the problems that came from the treaty of Versailles can be attributed to the self interests of the big four.
Non-Western Interests in the Treaty of Versailles
Japan:
Japan wanted territory in China, specifically the Shandong Province in the Northeastern Region of China. China did not want this to happen, but as a result of Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles Japan acquired the province much to China’s chagrin. At the same time, Germany orchestrated that Japan received its Pacific Colonies. Japan, however, wanted more territory inside China, and due to Germany’s perceived kindness would go on to side with the Axis Powers during World War II.
China:
China wanted Japan to stay in Japan and cease trying to colonize into China, and Japanese occupied territory in China to return to Chinese ownership. Due to Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles, Japan retained possession of the Shandong Province of China. This displeased China greatly (the displeasure led to the rise of a certain Mao Tse Tung), and they disputed the issue with Germany for the next 3 years. It wasn’t until the Washington Naval Conference of 1922 when the dispute was resolved and the Shandong Province was returned to Chinese Governance.
Arabs in the Ottoman Empire:
Much like China, Arab Nationalists wanted their land returned to them. However, unlike China, they had their lands returned to the as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. During 1916 an agreement was made called the Sykes-Picot Agreement, in which the British would be in control of Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq, while France would be in control of Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. Once the war was over and the agreement was realized, the British and French promised the Arabs their [[#|Heritage]] lands, and it was written down in the Treaty of Versailles. However, the Arab Nationals didn’t see a square metre of their land, and were forced to revolt in 1922 to finally get it.
Colonies:
Australia had lost a great deal of men as a result of the Great War, and was looking to be compensated. Many other British Colonies were looking for compensation for helping in the war effort, and it came in the form of [[#|German]] colonies. After the war was won, Germany was forced to sequester all of its colonial lands to the British and French, thus making Africa a solely Anglo-French controlled continent. The revenue gained from these countries and the subsequent accumulations of [[#|bonus]] resources and materials led to a surplus, which was then shipped to Australia and New Zealand. For Germany’s Pacific colonies in Indonesia and the Pacific [[#|Islands]], those went to Japan, which was a tactical decision by the Germans to satiate the Japanese thirst for Imperialism. The Allied Powers did not pay much attention to this shrewd move, for they dismissed Japan as a nation on the other side of the planet, with little to no influence on European proceedings.
The 14 Points as it pertains to Non-Western Interests:
As most of the Versailles Treaty was broken due to withholding of land and deferral of sequestration, Wilson’s 14 Points were seen as the last thing with which Non-Western interests could still flourish. The 14 points gave much of the Non-Western World hope for what was to come, however it did not progress past that. The hope they had was never realized due to the failings of the Treaty of Versailles. While some good things did come of the treaty, such as the reimbursement of Australia and New Zealand, many more things did not happen, and as such had to be rectified later in subsequent Treaties. The Treaty of Versailles had the option and ability to be a great Treaty, but due to the bureaucratic nature of the proceedings in getting it signed and ratified it never truly hit the ground running. It was best described by French Marshall Ferdinand Foch in 1919 as “not peace, but an Armistice for 20 years.”
Citations:
The Myths of Reparations
Sally Marks
Central European History , Vol. 11, No. 3 (Sep., 1978), pp. 231-255
A Shattered Peace: Versailles 1919 and the Price We Pay Today by David A. Andelman
Review by: Robert Gerwarth
International Journal , Vol. 63, No. 4, Nuclear Strategy in the Age of Weapons of Mass Destruction (Autumn, 2008), pp. 1061-1064
Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. New York: Norton, 1990. Print.
Versailles and the Soviet Union- Derek
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
What were the stipulations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918 between Germany and Lenin’s Bolshevik government? To what extent was this treaty observed or honored at Versailles? Why or why not?
With Russia's involvement in World War I along with her allies, France and Britain, the death toll was significant against Germany. Only a few consistent victories against Austria-Hungary was all Russia could manage. Defeat on the battle field did not please the large Russian population, especially the poverty-stricken workers and peasants. The discontent was even stronger with the cause of the Bolsheviks, a radical socialist group that was headed by Vladimir Lenin that furiously sought to find opposition to the czar. Lenin's hope was to begin a sweeping revolution in Russia that would later spread to the rest of the world.The February Revolution began in early March 1917. Lenin returned home from exile and he and his fellow Bolsheviks took control of the provisional government led by. One of Lenin's first action was to halt Russia's participation in the war. An armistice was reached in December of 1917 and cease fire declared on December 15. Terms for a treaty were negotiated on December 22 with Foreign Ministers Leon Trotsky of Russia, Baron Richard von Kuhlmann of Germany, and Count Ottokar Czernin of Austria. In mid- February negotiations failed as Trotsky decided that the Central Power's stipulations were too harsh and their demands for territory outrageous. Fighting resumed once again on the Eastern Front and Russia realized it was at no position to make demands with its weakened country. Negotiations resumed once again later that month and the treaty was officially signed on March 3.
The stipulations are as follows.
The total amount of land lost was about 1 million square miles of Russia's territory. In addition to the land, a third of the population, a majority of its coal, oil, and iron stores, and much of its industry was lost. Lenin hoed that a world revolution would right everything done at Brest-Ltovsk. With the November 11, 1918, armistice ending World War I and marking the Allies' victory over Germany, the treaty was annulled. By the terms of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Germany was forced to give up its territorial gains from the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Some of this land was made into new states: Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. An enlarged Poland also received some of this land.
Why was the Soviet Union not represented at the Paris Peace Conference? To what extent was the Soviet Union, in its absence, considered in the negotiations? To what extent did this affect the treaty?
Treaty negotiations for the Treaty of Versailles were weakened by the absence of Russia. The large country was part of the Allies until December 1917. After the Bolshevik government withdrew from the war, the Allied Powers did not recognize the new Bolshevik Government. They were also furious by the Bolshevik decision to repudiate Russia's outstanding financial debts to the Allies and to showcase documents of secret agreements between the Allies concerning the postwar period.
The formal reason of Russia's exclusion from the Paris Peace Conference was because they had negotiated a separate peace with Germany beforehand. Although physically absent from the Peace Conference, Russia's presence made itself felt in all of the deliberations.
Vladimir Lenin and his fellow Bolsheviks followed ideals that would lead to a perspective world revolution that would move westward, across Central Europe, France, and the entirety of Europe. This appears to be a very utopian idea but the Allied Powers at the Peace Conference took it very seriously in their discussions and negotiations.
The real reason for the exclusion of Russia was that all of the imperialist powers present at the Conference refused Bolshevism and its ideals. While negotiations were in process, the power of the revolution was spreading toward Germany. In fact, soviet republics had been declared in Hungary and Bavaria. Trotsky's Red Army was beating back counterrevolutionary White forces. The British, American, Japanese, and French forces were intervening actively on the side of the Whites in an anti-Bolshevik attitude.
This explains why the German ruling class was quick in capitulating to the Allies. The Germans, especially the Social Democratic leaders, had high hope on the American President, Woodrow Wilson, and his Fourteen Points. In 1919, Lenin was hoping that a Soviet revolution in Vienna would support Soviet Hungary. He also hoped a revolution would occur in Germany. This was because Germany was central in Europe and help facilitate the spread of communism. Also, Germany had a government that would easily transfer to communism with its current weak state.
“The Soviet revolution in Germany will strengthen the international Soviet movement, which is the strongest bulwark (and the only reliable, invincible and world-wide bulwark) against the Treaty of Versailles and against international imperialism in general.”
During the conference the “Big Three” was determined to stop the Russian influence of communism from spreading to the west. The "Big Three" were: David Lloyd George of Britain, Clemenceau of France, and Woodrow Wilson of America. George of Great Britain believed that the spread of communism posed a far greater threat to the world than a defeated Germany. He felt that Germany should be treated in such a manner that left her as a barrier to resist the expected spread of communism. He did not want the people of Germany to become so disillusioned with their government that they turned to communism. George did not want Germany treated with lenience but he knew that Germany would be the only country in central Europe that could stop the spread of communism if it burst over the frontiers of Russia. Germany had to be punished but not to the extent that it left her destitute.
The Treaty of Versailles had several parts that kept Germany strong enough to stop the spread of communism but at the same time very weak. The military of Germany was reduced drastically but not to the point of defenseless. The economy of Germany was in ruins, and the Allies wanted to keep economic potential at a minimum to keep it becoming too strong. The Allies forbid Germany to unite with Austria and all the reparations that were required made the country heavy with debt. Germany also had to admit full responsibility for starting the war.
To what extent did the Soviet issue in the Paris peace negotiations have an effect on the USSR’s relations with the rest of Europe and the United States in the inter-war period to follow (1919-39)?
Europe and the United States had a negative relationship with the USSR during the inter-war period of 1919-1939. The US and Europe saw that the Soviet Union was literally trying to take over the world (as mentioned before), and that someone had to push back the Soviet-style government - which had already killed more than 10 million of its own people before WWII even started - would be imposed on billions of innocent people. The United States extended its embargo of Germany to include Russia, and orchestrated a series of covert actions against Soviet Russia, including secretly funding its enemies. The USSR was not invited to join the League of Nations as well. This was due to their “World Revolution” ideals, negotiating a treaty prematurely, and the civil war within the country itself. The Allied Powers never did directly interfere with the Soviets when they invaded Poland in 1921. In the year of 1923, The Red Army, or the communists, completely secured power. More than 15,000,000 died, and industry had virtually come to a grinding halt. Starvation and disease were rampant, and the country was essentially in ruins. The new Soviet government implemented communist policies through military force. Stalin consolidated power, in 1928, after Trotsky. Russia and its Soviet land, like Ukraine and Belarus, suffered heavily under the hand of communism. Many starved, resistance was unacceptable, and mass murders were common. The Allied Powers looked on this with disgust and desired the spread of communistic power to not spread.
Work Cited:
"D.1. The Treaty of Versailles." Colby College | Four-Year Liberal Arts College in Maine. Colby, n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2013. <http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmschec
Girard, Romain . "A critical assessment of the international relations of the USSR during the interwar period." Introduction to International Relations 1.1 (2012): 1-7. Print.
Hoesel, Frans. "The Soviet Union and the United States." ibiblio - The Public's Library and Digital Archive. Ibiblio, n.d. Web. 7 Oct
2013. http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/soviet.exhibit/intro2.html
Sharp, Allan. "The 'Big Four'-Peacemaking in Paris in 1919: Alan Sharp Takes a Flesh Look at the Statesmen Responsible for the Treaty of Versailles."History Review 1.65 (2009): 14. Questia. Web. 7 Oct. 2013.
Simon, Jeffery. " Central Europe: "Return to Europe" or Descent to Chaos?.." McNair Papers 1.20-22 (1993): n/a. Questia. Web. 7 Oct. 2013.
Von, Theodore. "A Perspective on History: The Soviet System Reconsidered…" The Historian 61.2 (1999): 383. Questia. Web. 7 Oct. 2013.
The Armistice:
How was the armistice finally arrived at, and what were its conditions for all belligerents?The armistice went into effect on the “the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month”, or 11:00AM on November 11, 1918. When the German Supreme Army Command convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Imperial Chansellor Count Georg von Hertling that Germany’s military situation in the war was hopeless, they appointed royal liberal, Prince Maximillian of Baden, to negotiate the terms of an armistice with U.S. President Woodrow Wilson--the Germans wanted to conclude peace based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Wilson was willing to commence talks in secret with Germany, despite the fact that his allies (mainly Britain and France) were opposed to any negotiations with Germany that would lessen their punishment. However, Wilson had several preconditions including: the abdication of the Kaiser, retreat of Germany from Ally-occupied territories, and the abandonment of all submarine activities.The Germans declared this unacceptable, but the decline in military morale in Germany’s Western front and the increasing instances of civilian revolt (sailor’s revolt) made staying in the war impossible.
Brief description of conditions for belligerents:
__http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Conditions_of_an_Armistice_with_Germany__
Official conditions for belligerents (primary document):
__http://www.gwpda.org/1918/armistice.html__
To what extent was the armistice adhered to or violated by the belligerent states in the period between Nov. 1918 and June 1919?
Because the armistice was violated, Annex 1 and Annex 2 were added to the Armistice.
- Germany stated that they were incapable of complying with the demands stated in the armistice because they did not have the physical means and that the interior of Germany was distraught and needed time to recover.
- The most important violations were: mistreatment of Allied POWs, failure to provide war materials (such as naval vessels and air crafts) and the fact that they left mines in territories that they were supposed to leave.
To what extent did the armistice serve to dictate the peace process at Versailles? To what extent can it be argued as a reason for the failure of the treaty to bring a meaningful peace?
The Treaty of Versailles was developed at the Paris Peace Conference and it was signed on June 28, 1919. The armistice had ended the actual fighting between Germany and Allied forces, but a peace treaty was not drawn up until six months later. The armistice was used as a general model to “determine the spirit” of the Conference, although Wilson’s 14 points were ambiguous: “they were war aims as much as they were peace terms”. And the inclusion of a “War Guilt Clause” suggests that the purpose of the Conference was not to find a meaningful peace for the world, but to determine how to make Germany suffer the most in the form of war reparations. Negotiating the Peace treaties on the basis of the armistice brought about a new diplomacy dictated by “acceptance in principle but negation in detail”.
Works Cited:
1. "Avalon Project - President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points." Avalon Project - President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2013.
2. Conditions of an Armistice with Germany
The American Journal of International Law , Vol. 13, No. 2, Supplement: Official Documents (Apr., 1919), pp. 97-108
Published by: American Society of International Law
Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2212759
3. "Sgt. Hugh Cairns V.C., D.C.M." Sgt. Hugh Cairns V.C., D.C.M. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2013.
4.The War, the Armistice and the Peace Conference
Register of Kentucky State Historical Society , Vol. 17, No. 49 (JANUARY, 1919), pp. 63, 65-69
Published by: Kentucky Historical Society
Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23368602
A Peace Built on Quicksand
From 1919-25, what events in the major world powers gave clear indications that the Versailles Treaty was not going to result in a lasting peace? Why?
Germany
League of Nations
What were the causes and effects of the Ruhr Crisis of 1923? How can it be viewed as both a bolster and an undermining of the Versailles Treaty?
Causes: After WWI ended, Germany was forced in the Treaty of Versailles to take responsibility for starting the war and agree to pay reparations to various Allied countries, especially France. Germany was also forced to surrender its overseas colonies and the Alsace-Lorraine (now a part of France). The total amount of money demanded from Germany amounted more than $800 billion in modern terms. In 1921, this amount was reduced to $442 billion in modern terms, but it was still a huge burden for Germany. The German economy suffered significantly, especially because some of the payments demanded were raw industrial materials. The Treaty of Versailles stripped Germany of slightly over 13% of its territory and reduced Germany’s economic productivity 13%.
By 1922 Germany was struggling to meet all responsibilities and had defaulted on several payments, which was also partially due to Germany’s rejection of the reparations. Most Germans viewed the demands imposed by the treaty to be grossly unjust. The Reparations Commission was divided on what action should be taken—France and Belgium advocated the occupation of Ruhr, which had previously been occupied by Allied forces after WWI, as a way to force Germany to pay more, while Britain supported lowering the payments. In December of 1922 Germany failed to make a timber payment, which caused the Reparations Commissions to invade Ruhr. Some of the Allies believed that Germany had defaulted on its payment to text the Allies’ willingness to enforce the treaty. In addition to the timber, Germany also failed to make a coal payment in early January of 1923. Led by the French prime minister, the invasion of Ruhr took place on January 11, 1923 in order to force Germany to make its payments.
Effects: The invasion sparked a campaign of passive resistance by Germans, with a number of protests and strikes occurring across the nation. Civil unrest, rather than calming down, eventually grew into riots. The occupation of Ruhr increased sympathy for Germany around the world, but no action was taken because France’s actions were legal under the Versailles Treaty. The occupation eventually did succeed in making Germany pay. However, because Germany had gained the world’s sympathy, France came under pressure from the US and Britain to reduce Germany’s reparations. France agreed to the Dawes Plan of April 1924, under which Germany paid significantly less. On August 25 of 1925, the occupation of Ruhr was ended.
This event could be viewed as a bolster to the Versailles Treaty because France demonstrated to Germany and the world that it was willing to use force to make sure Germany adhered to the terms that had been agreed upon. Additionally, France achieved its goal of making the occupation of Ruhr pay, which lent more credibility to those who backed the Versailles Treaty. However, it could be seen as undermining the treaty because France lost money in the long run when it was pressured by the international community into reducing Germany’s reparations. The fact that the Dawes Plan passed showed that the terms of the Versailles Treaty were not quite set in stone.
What were the causes and effects of the Kapp Putsch, the Ruhr Uprising, and the Munich Putsch in 1923? How can they all be viewed in the context of a growing German rejection of the Versailles Treaty?
The Kapp Putsch was a coup attempt in 1920 that aimed to overthrow the Weimar Republic and turn Germany into a right-wing monarchy, undoing the results of the Germany Revolution from 1918-1919. It was driven by support from the army and other nationalistic and conservative forces.
Causes: After Germany lost WWI, the German Revolution took place from 1918 to 1919 and abolished to German Empire, establishing a republic in its place. The military and right-wing forces in the nation opposed this change. Problems within in the government arose due to Treaty of Versailles, which demanded that Germany reduce its military forces. It stated that Germany’s land forces could have no more than 100,000 men. This meant that the Freikorps (free corps) would have to be disbanded. On February 29 of 1920, when the German Defense Minister ordered the disbandment of two of the most powerful Freikorp troops, the commander stated that they refused to disband. The highest ranking general in the military at the time, Luttwitz, sympathized with the Freikorps and stated that he would not stand for the dissolution of such important units. The military, after a number of failed attempts at mediation, led a coup against the government. The military forced took Berlin.
Effects: The coup seemed like a success at first, with the current German government being forced to flee from Berlin to Dresden, and then from Dresden to Stuttgart. However, on March 13, the cabinet called on the German people to go on strike to oppose the rebels. It was a huge success, gaining considerable support from the working class. It was in fact the most widespread and powerful strike in Germany, with roughly 12 million people involved. The country was unable to function, which left the provisional government unable to function. The coup was ultimately a failure. In some areas across the country, the strike turned into armed revolts, with workers fighting against German military forces.Wolfgang Kapp, a civil servant who had been planning a coup for some time and played a supporting role in the Kapp Putsch as well as declaring himself Chancellor of the provisional government, fled to Sweden in April, and Luttwitz fled to Saxony and then Hungary. Kapp was arrested in Sweden on April 16th but not deported to Germany. He voluntarily returned to Germany in April of 1922 and died the same year in prison while awaiting trial. Luttwitz returned to Germany as part of an amnesty in 1924.
This can be seen as a sign of growing German discontent with the Versailles Treaty because it was caused by the German military refusing to comply with the treaty’s terms. The Freikorps were meant to be disbanded in order to meet Germany’s imposed cap of 100,000 land soldiers, but the Freikorp troops outright rejected these terms, clearly showing their discontent with the treaty.
The Ruhr Uprising was a left-wing worker’s revolt in March of 1920 in the Ruhr Region of Germany.
Causes: The Ruhr Uprising was in fact caused by the aforementioned Kapp Putsch. It initially took place due to the Weimar Republic government calling on German citizens to strike in order to cripple the provisional government. The left-wing workers’ parties in Ruhr had already formed an anti-putsch alliance in previous demonstrations against the putsch. They wanted to gain political power. During the strike, a number of the workers’ organizations tried to use the opportunity to seize power of the state level. The strike in the Ruhr region turned into an armed revolt, and the Red Ruhr Army, which numbered roughly 50,000, defeated the military forces in the area fairly quickly.
Effects: After the Kapp Putsch was toppled and the previous government reinstalled, the workers’ groups in the Ruhr region refused to end their uprising despite the government’s demand to do so. The government eventually sent in the Freikorps and the general German army to crush the revolt, which resulted in a rather bloody conflict that cost somewhere in the area of 2,000 lives. There were also mass executions for those who participated in the uprising.
This can be seen as a rejection of the Versailles Treaty in that the workers’ groups were expressing deep discontent with the current situation in Germany and the vast disparity between the upper and lower classes, which could be partially blamed on the treaty because it crippled the German economy with its harsh conditions. This uprising was the largest armed German workers’ revolt in history and was supported by about 300,000 miners while the middle and upper classes feared it, showing that a major cause of the uprising was the divide between the rich and poor.
The Munich Putsch (Beer Hall Putsch) was Hitler’s attempt to overthrow the the Weimar Republic government and establish a right-wing nationalistic one in its place.
Causes: This event was directly related to the occupation of Ruhr. In September of 1923, while the French were in Ruhr, the German Chancellor stated that after hyperinflation the only way Germany would be able to move forward was to work with France, not try to go against them. This meant that the passive resistance in the Ruhr Valley had to be called off and Germany had to agree to pay the reparations it owed under the Versailles Treaty. To nationalist factions, this amounted to a confession of guilt for starting WWI, which they could not abide by. On November 8th and 9th in 1923, Hitler, leading the Nazi party which then numbered roughly 35,000, tried to used the anger felt against the Berlin government to orchestrate an overthrow of the regional government in Munich and then move on to usurp the national government. Hitler placed all his hopes on people in Munich following him due to having been angered by the central government’s response to the Ruhr crisis, but he never gained the support he needed and the coup failed.
Effects: Hitler was arrested two days later and charged with high treason. He was released on December 20 of 1924 for good behavior after having only served nine months. One of the most prominent effects of the Munich Putsch was the further development of Nazi propaganda in Germany. Hilter’s role in the coup and his subsequent arrest gave him a sort of publicity throughout the nation. He used his trial as an opportunity to spread his ideas, with every word he spoke being reported in the newspaper the next day. Furthermore, this changed Hitler’s mindset toward violent revolution. He decided that any action he took from then on ought to be strictly legal—he would take power by working within the system and using it to his advantage. Sixteen Nazis died during the attempted coup, and they came to be viewed as martyrs within the Nazi party and even had a memorial built for them.
This coup was a clear expression of discontent with the Versailles Treaty. The Treaty attempted to force Germany to take responsibility for WWI, which nationalist groups such as the Nazis saw as a severe insult and flat-out rejected. The fact that the Weimar government seemed to be ceding to France’s pressure and accepting this blame was unacceptable to such groups and therefore prompted Hitler—and the Nazi party—to take bold action. Additionally, the judge at Hitler’s trial was quite sympathetic toward him and his ideology, showing the many Germans disliked the current government’s submissiveness toward the Versailles Treaty.
Bibliography
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The Big Four
-Goals in the treaty of Versailles
France- To the French, preventing another invasion from Germany was top priority in the Paris Peace Conference. The French wanted extremely large reparation costs for Germany, like repairing damaged cities and paying war debts, as a way to cripple the economy enough so that Germany will not become a powerful country again. However these costs would only be short term, so France actually wanted to seize western industrial lands from Germany, and even disband the Reich all together. France supported the creation of a semiautonomous state between them and Germany that favored the French politically. This would effectively eliminate Germany as a threat to France. In addition to this France also wanted to make strong allies with other countries to the south and east of Germany, like Austria and the Polish lands as a way to have a second front against Germany, replacing Russia which could no longer stand as a military ally for France if there were another attack by Germany. France’s last major request was the acquisition of German territories in the middle east to support the French economy.
US- For Woodrow Wilson the most important goal was the creation of the League of Nations, which would serve as a mediator between nations and make war unnecessary for disputes between nations. Wilson also wanted to support his speech, the fourteen points, and help “self determination”. Because of this the US had no problem with Germany becoming a strong economic power, which collides with what France wants. Although the US did want Germany’s military to be permanently out of commision, they felt that if Germany became too weak, France would have domination over much of Europe. Wilson also strongly felt that Germany should stay a country and should not be disbanded, however the return of conquered lands, especially Belgium, were extremely important for the US.
UK- The primary objective for the British was to demilitarize Germany, and seize their battle fleet and merchant navy. Much of Britain’s though about Germany’s future was similar with the United States’. The UK wanted to keep Germany united, and only have it demilitarized yet still keeping a strong economy for trading purposes. The UK was also cautious about France becoming too powerful in Europe. Another goal for the UK was Germany’s colonies in both Africa and the Middle East (mostly from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire). Many ambitions for these colonies sparked conflict with France, who also shared interest in taking these colonies.
Italy- By far the largest goal for Italy was the lands that it was promised. Italy had its eyes on extending its borders along the mediterranean sea and also more into the eastern interior of Europe. These lands were promised to Italy by France and the UK as a way to get Italy to join their side in the conflict. Italy also shared interests in the demilitarization of Germany.
Many of these objectives were met in the Treaty of Versailles. First off Germany lost much of its land because of the Treaty. Belgium was returned, and some territories near France were given to France for a 15 year period. The future of these lands after the 15 years would be decided after another meeting between nations. Germany also lost many lands to the East such as the Polish lands. This pleased the big four however many Germans were outraged especially at the loss of the eastern lands. Another thing that all four countries agreed on was the demilitarization of Germany. After the treaty, Germany had to completely disarm except for an army of only 100,000 men which was allowed to stay. Britain also seized German naval ships and merchant ships. Financially Germany was put in an unreasonable position to pay almost all war debts and reparation costs, which was greatly supported by France. Germany was forced to pay a blank check that would stay for decades. The treaty also criminalized German leaders and put the blame of the war on them, which also outraged many German citizens. In time the League of Nations was formed, however it had very little actually power in its mediations. The treaty of Versailles was carried out in the self interest of the big four, and did not actually strive for fair peace between nations. One way this can be seen is through the eyes of Germany. Germany was almost completely blamed for this war and was given unreasonable consequences. It would be extremely hard for Germany to pay the debts, especially after many financial assets were given to both France and the UK. Germany also felt betrayed by Wilson’s 14 points after the loss of its eastern lands, especially because many of the Germans did not like their new rulers(Czechs). The criminalization of Germany’s leaders also seemed to be overkill as a way to embarrass Germany even more. Because of this many of the problems that came from the treaty of Versailles can be attributed to the self interests of the big four.
Citations:
"D.1. The Treaty of Versailles." D.1. The Treaty of Versailles. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Oct. 2013.
<http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmscheck/GermanyD1.html>
" Aims of the Big Three at Versailles. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Oct. 2013.
<http://www.johndclare.net/peace_treaties3.htm>.